The categories presented there hold a physical, tangible component, related to the spatial and material aspects of the city. The image of the Smart City recalls Lynch’s “Image of the City” (1960) and the ways in which urban spaces are perceived by the community and users. This will enable evidence-based decisions in landscape architecture and urban design, as well as fulfill pedagogic purposes in higher education and research. The study sets up the bases for a systematic assessment of flood adaptation responses also by facilitating communication between disciplines, designers, and non-experts. The results are aimed at informing operations in the planning and design professions by proposing a schematic design framework for flood adaptation in different geographic conditions, scales, and climates. The study adopts a design-by-research approach to examine 30 case studies from the Sponge Cities initiative realized in China in the last twenty years and develops a toolbox of Flood Adaptation Types for stormwater management. With the purpose of operationalizing flood resilience, this study explores how constructed ecology principles are applied to the design of multifunctional landscapes to restore floodplain functions in urban areas and prevent downstream flooding. To address riverine and flash flooding in urban areas, urban and landscape designers have developed design solutions that are able to increase urban ecological resilience by allocating space to fluctuating water levels. In highly urbanized floodplains, it is becoming widely accepted that a change is needed to move away from flood control towards flood adaptation paradigms. This study is the first to explore SPC parks that integrate stormwater management and park services, thereby providing implications for SPC development in China and insights into the ways that the two properties can be combined in other cities. Additionally, we found that larger parks employed a wider range of techniques for managing stormwater runoff and supported broader sets of park activities, while those at smaller scales prioritized infiltration, detention, and purification measures, as well as concentrated on social and economic activities. Our findings show that stormwater techniques were primarily combined with the park facilities of water areas, paved open spaces, and pathways. To fill this gap, 23 sponge city parks in Shanghai were investigated to examine the combination of stormwater and park services.
To date, most research has focused on the stormwater management performance aspect of these combinations and not the techniques employed to achieve the combined goals. To solve these problems, cities are increasingly combining stormwater infrastructure with park space in ways that create new efficiencies.
Due to climate change and rapid urbanization, contemporary cities face the dual challenges of providing sufficient stormwater management and adequate park services, which potentially conflict over limited space and resources.
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